Slovak (/ˈsloʊvæk, -vɑːk/) or less frequently Slovakian is a West Slavic language (together with Czech, Polish, and Sorbian). It is called slovenský jazyk (pronounced [ˈslɔʋɛnskiː ˈjazik] ) or slovenčina ([ˈslɔʋɛntʃina]) in the language itself.
Slovak is the official language of Slovakia, where it is spoken by approximately 5.51 million people (2014). Slovak speakers are also found in the United States, the Czech Republic, Argentina, Serbia, Ireland, Romania, Poland, Canada, Hungary, Germany, Croatia, Israel, the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Ukraine, Norway and many other countries worldwide.

History

he earliest written records of Slovak are represented by personal and place names, later by sentences, short notes and verses in Latin and Czech documents. Latin documents contain also mentions about a cultivation of the vernacular language. The complete texts are available since the 15th century. In the 15th century, Latin began to lose its privileged position in favor of Czech and cultural Slovak.
The Old Church Slavonic became the literary and liturgical language, and the Glagolitic alphabet, the corresponding script in Great Moravia until 885. Latin continues to be used in parallel. Some of the early Old Church Slavonic texts contain elements of the language of the Slavic inhabitants of Great Moravia and Pannonia, which were called the Sloviene by Slavic texts at that time. The use of Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by Pope Stephen V in 885; consequently, Latin became the administrative and liturgical language again. Many followers and students of Constantine and Methodius fled to Bulgaria, Croatia, Bohemia, the Kievan Rus' and other countries.
From the 10th century onward, Slovak began to develop independently. Very few written records of Old Slovak remain, mainly from the 13th century onwards, consisting of groups of words or single sentences. Fuller Slovak texts appeared starting from 15th century. The old Slovak language and its development can be research mainly through old Slovak toponyms, petrificated within Latin texts. Examples include crali (1113) > kráľ, king; dorz (1113) > dvorec; grinchar (1113) > hrnčiar, potter; mussenic (1113) > mučeník, martyr; scitar (1113) > štítar, shieldmaker; zaltinc (1156) > zlatník, goldmaker; duor (1156) > dvor, courtyard; and otroč (1156) > otrok, slave, servant. In 1294, the monk Ivanka from Kláštor pod Znievom wrote: "ad parvam arborem nystra slowenski breza ubi est meta". It is important mainly because it contains the oldest recorded adjective Slovak in the Slovak language, whose modern form is slovensky. Up until this point, all adjectives were recorded mainly in Latin, including sclavus, slavus and sclavoniae.
Anton Bernolák, a Catholic priest (1762-1813), published the Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum in 1787, in which he codifies a Slovak language standard that is based on the Western Slovak language of the University of Trnava but contains also some central Slovak elements, e.g. soft consonants ď, ť, ň, ľ and many words. The orthography is strictly diacritical. The language is often called the Bernolák language. Bernolák continued his codification work in other books in the 1780s and 1790s and especially in his huge six-volume Slovak-Czech-Latin-German-Hungarian Dictionary, in print from 1825-1927. In the 1820s, the Bernolák standard was revised, and Central Slovak elements were systematically replaced by their Western Slovak equivalents.
This was the first successful establishment of a Slovak language standard. Bernolák's language was used by Slovak Catholics, especially by the writers Juraj Fándly and Ján Hollý, but Protestants still wrote in the Czech language in its old form used in Bohemia until the 17th century.
In 1843, young Slovak Lutheran Protestants, led by Ľudovít Štúr, decided to establish and discuss the central Slovak dialect as the new Slovak language standard instead of both Bernolák's language used by the Catholics and the Czech language used by older Slovak Lutheran Protestants. The new standard was also accepted by some users of the Bernolák language led by Ján Hollý, but was initially criticized by the older Lutheran Protestants led by Ján Kollár (died 1852). This language formed the basis of the later literary Slovak language that is used today. It was officially declared the new language standard in August 1844. The first Slovak grammar of the new language will be published by Ľudovít Štúr in 1846.
With the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Slovak became an official language for the first time in history along with the Czech language. The Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 and the constitutional law on minorities which was adopted alongside the constitution on the same day established the Czechoslovak language as an official language Since the Czechoslovak language did not exist, the law recognized its two variants, Czech and Slovak. Czech was usually used in administration in the Czech lands; Slovak, in Slovakia. In practice, the position of languages was not equal. Along with political reasons, this situation was caused by a different historical experience and numerous Czech teachers and clerks in Slovakia, who helped to restore the educational system and administration because Slovaks educated in the Slovak language were missing.
Czechoslovakia split into Slovakia and Czechia in 1992. The Slovak language became the official language of Slovakia.

Linguistics

An Indo-European language, Slovak is closely related to other languages such as Czech. It is more distantly related to languages as far apart as English and Ancient Hittite.
Classification
Slovak's full classification is as follows:
Indo-European > Balto-Slavic > Slavic > West Slavic > Czech–Slovak > Slovak
Morphophonemics
Slovak has five (or six) short vowel phonemes. These five can also be distinguished by length, giving a total of 10 contrastive vowel phonemes. There are four diphthongs in the language.
Slovak has 29 consonant phonemes, however. These phonemes are contrasted by place of articulation as well as voicing. Voiceless stops and affricates are made without aspiration.
In the standard language, the stress is always on the first syllable of a word (or on the preceding preposition, see below). This is not the case in certain dialects. Eastern dialects have penultimate stress (as in Polish), which at times makes them difficult to understand for speakers of standard Slovak. Some of the north-central dialects have a weak stress on the first syllable, which becomes stronger and moves to the penultimate in certain cases. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb byť (to be) are usually unstressed.
Prepositions form a single prosodic unit with the following word, unless the word is long (four syllables or more) or the preposition stands at the beginning of a sentence.
Syntax
Word order in Slovak is relatively free, since strong inflection enables the identification of grammatical roles (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of word placement. This relatively free word order allows the use of word order to convey topic and emphasis.
Slovak nouns are inflected for case and number. There are six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, and instrumental. The vocative is no longer morphologically marked. There are two numbers: singular and plural. Nouns have inherent gender. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives and pronouns must agree with nouns in case, number, and gender.
Slovak has 9 different personal pronouns, which can also appear in the various cases. The 9 pronouns are given in the nominative case in the table below.

Meaning	Pronoun
1s	ja
2s informal	ty
3s masc	on
3s neut	ono
3s fem	ona
1p	my
2p (2s formal)	vy
3p (masculine animate, or mixed genders)	oni
3p (other)	ony

Verbs have three major conjugations. Three persons and two numbers (singular and plural) are distinguished. Several conjugation paradigms exist as follows: Slovak is a pro-drop language, which means the pronouns are generally omitted unless they are needed to add emphasis. Historically, two past tense forms were utilized. Both are formed analytically. The second of these, equivalent to the pluperfect, is not used in the modern language, being considered archaic and/or grammatically incorrect. One future tense exists. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Two conditional forms exist, both formed analytically from the past tense. Most Slovak verbs can have two forms: perfective (the action has ended or is complete) and imperfective (the action has not yet ended).
Orthography
Slovak uses the Latin script with small modifications that include the four diacritics (ˇ, ´, ¨, ˆ) placed above certain letters (a-á,ä; c-č; d-ď; dz-dž; e-é; i-í; l-ľ,ĺ; n-ň; o-ó,ô; r-ŕ; s-š; t-ť; u-ú; y-ý; z-ž)
The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonemic principle. The secondary principle is the morphological principle: forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently. An example of this principle is the assimilation rule (see below). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are usually pronounced the same way.
Finally, the rarely applied grammatical principle is present when, for example, the basic singular form and plural form of masculine adjectives are written differently with no difference in pronunciation (e.g. pekný = nice – singular versus pekní = nice – plural).
Written Sample:
Všetci ľudia sa rodia slobodní a sebe rovní, čo sa týka ich dostôjnosti a práv. Sú obdarení rozumom a majú navzájom jednať v bratskom duchu.
Spoken sample:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLwMLhr_McQ (interview)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ShR1Hp4xFDw (lullaby)
https://youtu.be/qW0GpWnioTQ (wikitongues)
Sources & Further reading
Wikipedia articles on Slovak
What now?
This thread is foremost a place for discussion. Are you a native speaker? Share your culture with us. Learning the language? Tell us why you chose it and what you like about it. Thinking of learning? Ask a native a question. Interested in linguistics? Tell us what's interesting about it, or ask other people. Discussion is week-long, so don't worry about post age, as long as it's this week's language.

Previous LotWs

Cześć - This week's language of the week: Polish

Polish (język polski [jɛ̃zɨk ˈpɔlskʲi]) is a Slavic Language spoken by some 55 million people, primarily in Poland, where it is an official language, but also used by minority communities throughout the world. Although the Austrian, German and Russian administrations exerted much pressure on the Polish nation (during the 19th and early 20th centuries) following the Partitions of Poland, which resulted in attempts to suppress the Polish language, a rich literature has regardless developed over the centuries.

Linguistics

As a Slavic Language, Polish is related to other languages such as Russian and Czech, as well as their more distant cousins Irish and Hindi. More specifically, as a Western Slavic language, it is closely related to languages such as Silesian, Kashubian, Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian
Classification
Polish's full classification is as follows:
Indo-European (Proto-Indo-European) > Balto-Slavic (Proto-Balto-Slavic) > Slavic (Proto-Slavic) > West Slavic > Lechitic > Polish
Phonology and Phonotactics
Polish has eight different vowel phonemes, distinguishing six oral vowels, /i ɛ ɨ a u ɔ/ and two nasal ones, partially preserved from Proto-Slavic, /ɛ̃ ɔ̃/.
Polish has either 28 or 31 consonant phonemes, depending on whether the palatalized velars are considered phonemic or not. Polish has a set of retroflex consonants that may be described as palato-aveolar, but are probably better described as retroflex. These retroflex consonants are also laminal, a feature they share with Chinese retroflexes.
Polish consonants experience a decent degree of allophony due to various processes. Among these is voicing and devoicing, which has served to neutralize the voicing distinction on consonants in certain positions. Polish, like other Slavic languages, is known to allow complex consonant clusters, such as in the word bezwzględny [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ].
Stress in Polish is predominantly on the penultimate syllable, with secondary stress appearing on alternating syllables before it. Therefore a five syllable word would have stress on the fourth syllable, with a secondary stress on the second. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, such as some borrowings from Classical languages.
Morphology and Syntax
Polish is a highly inflected language, with a relatively free word order, though the default is Subject-Verb-Object.
Polish nouns inflect for seven cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. Nouns also decline for two numbers, singular and plural (the dual is seen in some relics, but was mostly lost in the 15th century), as well as three genders or noun classes, masculine, feminine and neuter. However, among these genders, the masculine is further subdivided into personal, animate or inanimate categories.
The full declension pattern of three nouns in the singular can be seen below. They are klub ('club', masculine animate), mapa ('map', feminine) and mięso ('meat', neuter).

Case	klub	mapa	mięso
Nominate	klub	mapa	mięso
Accusative	klub	mapę	mięso
Genitive	klubu	mapy	mięsa
Dative	klubowi	mapie	mięsu
Vocative	klubie	mapo	mięso
Locative	klubie	mapie	mięsie
Instrumental	klubem	mapą	mięsem

Polish has 13 different pronomial forms, contrasting several persons and genders, as well as a T-V distinction based on politeness that corresponds to gender. The full set of pronouns, in the nominative, can be seen below

Pronoun	Meaning
ja	1st singular
ty	2nd singular informal
pan	2nd singular formal masculine
pani	2nd singular formal feminine
on	3rd singular masculine
ona	3rd singular feminine
ono	3rd singular neuter
my	1st plural
wy	2nd plural informal
panowie	2nd plural formal masculine
panie	2nd plural formal feminine
oni	3rd plural masculine personal
one	3rd plural other

Adjectives in Polish inflect to agree with the noun in gender, case and number. Polish has no definite or indefinite article, either.
Polish verbs conjugate for two numbers, three persons, three tenses, two aspects and four moods. Because of the extensive conjugation paradigm of Polish verbs, the pronoun is often dropped as the information is given in the verb itself, thus making Polish a pro-drop language similar to Spanish.
Polish's two aspects are the imperfective aspect and the perfective aspect, though these two aspects can only be utilized in the past and future tenses; all conjugations in the present must use the imperfective as they are ongoing, repeated or habitual. The perfective is used only with structures where an action has ended or will have ended, such as entire, uninterrupted action just after the moment of speech or just before it. To create a perfective verb from an imperfective one, Polish adds a prefix. Some verbs, including all motion verbs, have two forms of the imperfective aspect. The other is the frequentative form, which is used to emphasize repetition and describe habits.
The four moods that Polish can express are the indicative, imperative, conditional and subjunctive moods. The three tenses are the past, present and future. Polish verbs come in one of four conjugation paradigms, often based on how the verb ends. Polish also allows for verbal nouns to be derived from the verb and used in certain cases.

Miscellany

The Book of Henryków (Polish: Księga henrykowska, Latin: Liber fundationis claustri Sancte Marie Virginis in Heinrichau), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (pronounced originally as: Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj, modern Polish: Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj or Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij, English: Come, let me grind, and you take a rest), written around 1270.
Polish was used as a lingua franca in Central Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries due to the influence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Old Polish is an attested ancestral form of the language, with Middle Polish being used from the 16th to the 18th centuries and Modern Polish being used from then on.

Samples

Spoken sample:
Newscast
Lullaby
Talkshow
Written sample:
Wszyscy ludzie rodzą się wolni i równi w swojej godności i prawach. Są obdarzeni rozumem i sumieniem i powinni postępować wobec siebie w duchu braterstwa.

Sources

Wikipedia pages on Polish
Iwona Sadowska, Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar

Previous LotWs

Jó napot kívánok - This week's language of the week: Hungarian!

Hungarian is an Uralic language spoken predominantly in Hungary, though there exist enclaves of speakers in neighboring countries and among expatriate communities. There are approximately 13 million native speakers of the language.
The dialects of Hungarian identified by Ethnologue are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian. These dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible. The Hungarian Csángó dialect, which is mentioned but not listed separately by Ethnologue, is spoken primarily in Bacău County in eastern Romania. The Csángó Hungarian group has been largely isolated from other Hungarian people, and they therefore preserved features that closely resemble earlier forms of Hungarian. See Hungarian dialects for more information.
Hungarian is the official language of Hungary, and thus an official language of the European Union. Hungarian is also one of the official languages of Vojvodina and an official language of three municipalities in Slovenia: Hodoš, Dobrovnik and Lendava, along with Slovene. Hungarian is officially recognized as a minority or regional language in Austria, Croatia, Romania, Zakarpattia in Ukraine, and Slovakia. In Romania it is a recognized minority language used at local level in communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic Hungarian population of over 20%

History

See History of the Hungarian Language for more information.
Prehistory
Hungarian likely split from the other Ugric languages in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. This likely happened in western Sierian, east of the southern Ural mountains. This event also likely coincided with the shift of the Hungarians from a settled hunter to a nomadic pastoralist lifestyle, which possibly came about through contacts with Iranian nomads (Scythians and Sarmatians). Old Iranian loanwords, dating back to shortly after the split of Hungarian from the other Urgic languages, help support this view.
During this shift, the Hungarians were also migrating. They first settled the coastal region of the northeastern Black Sea, where the language was greatly influenced by the Turkish languages spoken in the area. It was while they were living here, in the 6th century CE that Hungarians likely experienced writing for the first time.
The first written accounts of Hungarian arise in the 10th century, though they are mostly personal and place names (written in the Old Hungarian Script; this is likely due to wood, a highly perishable material, being the main medium of writing. The first extant text fully written in Hungarian is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, which dates to the 1190s.
A more extensive body of Hungarian literature arose during the 14th and 15th centuries. Changes to the language are clearly seen through the literature of the eras. The Old Hungarian period ended at roughly the beginning of the 16th century.
The first printed Hungarian book was published in Kraków in 1533, by Benedek Komjáti. The work's title is Az Szent Pál levelei magyar nyelven (In original spelling: Az zenth Paal leueley magyar nyeluen), i.e. The letters of Saint Paul in the Hungarian language. In the 17th century, the language was already very similar to its present-day form, although two of the past tenses were still used. German, Italian and French loans also appeared in the language by these years. Further Turkish words were borrowed during the Ottoman occupation of much of Hungary between 1541 and 1699. This was the Middle Hungarian period.
In the 18th century a group of writers, most notably Ferenc Kazinczy, spearheaded a process of nyelvújítás (language revitalization). Some words were shortened (győzedelem > győzelem, 'triumph' or 'victory'); a number of dialectal words spread nationally (e.g., cselleng 'dawdle'); extinct words were reintroduced (dísz, 'décor'); a wide range of expressions were coined using the various derivative suffixes; and some other, less frequently used methods of expanding the language were utilized. Further standardization occurred during the 19th and 20th centuries, and a leveling of dialects. causing previously unintelligible dialects to move closer together. This is the Modern Hungarian period.

Linguistics

As an Uralic language, Hungarian is related to major languages such as Finnish and Estonian. However, it is more closely related to the Ugric branch of these languages, which includes such as Khanty and Mansi.
Classification
Hunagarians's full classification is as follows:
Uralic (Proto-Uralic) > Finno-Ugric > Ugric > Hungarian
Phonology and Phonotactics
Hungarian has 14 vowel and 25 consonant phonemes. The vowels are grouped in pars of short and long phonemes. Hungarian consonants can also be long or short, a process knows as gemination
As in Finnish, Turkish, and Mongolian, vowel harmony plays an important part in determining the distribution of vowels in a word. Hungarian vowel harmony classifies the vowels according to front vs. back assonance and rounded vs unrounded for the front vowels. While /i/, /iː/, /ɛ/, and /eː/ are all front unrounded vowels, they are considered to be "neutral vowels" in Hungarian vowel harmony.
Apart from vowel harmony, Hungarian has many other sandhi processes, such as voicing assimilation, nasal assimilation, sibilant assimilation, palatal assimilation, degimination, intercluster elision, elision of [l] and hiatus effects.
Stress is on the first syllable of the word, and particles are generally left unstressed.
Morphology and Syntax
Hungarian is an agglutinative language, and predominantly suffixing. It is a topic-prominent language and so its word order depends on the topic-comment structure of the sentence (for example, what aspect is assumed to be known and what is emphasised)
With a few exceptions, Hungarian nouns do not mark a distinction for gender, or for any noun classes. They are marked for two numbers, the singular and plural, though the plural is used less sparsely.
Hungarian nouns do, however, decline for eighteen different cases. These are: nominative, used for the subject; accusative, used to express the direct object; dative, used to mark the indirect object; instrumental-comitative, used to mark 'with'; causal-final, used to signal 'for, for the purpose of'; translative, which works as the English 'into'; terminative, 'as far as, up to'; essive-formal, 'as, in the capacity of'; essive-modal, 'by way of'; inessive, which signals position inside; superessive, which signifies position on; adessive, for position nearby/at; illative, expressing motion into something; sublative, expressing motion onto something; allative, expressing motion to a place; elative, used for expressing motion out of a place'; delative, for expressing motion off a place, or information about/concerning a place; and ablative, expressing motion away from a place. Examples of all of these can be seen in the table below. Where changes differ from the expected form based on the suffix, it's due to assimilation.

Case	Suffix	lakás (apartment)	English Meaning
Nominative	∅	lakás	apartment (as subject)
Accusative	-ot/(-at)/-et/-öt/-t	lakást	apartment (as direct object)
Dative	-nak/-nek	lakásnak	to the apartment
Instrumental-Comitative	-val/-vel	lakással	with the apartment
Causal-final	-ért	lakásért	for the apartment
Translative	-vá/-vé	lakássá	[turn] into an apartment
Terminative	-ig	lakásig	as far as the apartment
Essive-formal	-ként	lakásként	in the capacity of an apartment, as an apartment
Essive-modal	-ul/-ül	lakásul	by way of an apartment
Inessive	-ban/-ben	lakásban	in the apartment
Superessive	-on/-en/-ön/-n	lakáson	on the apartment
Adessive	-nál/-nél	lakásnál	by/at the apartment
Illative	-ba/-be	lakásba	into the apartment
Sublative	-ra/-re	lakásra	onto the apartment
Allative	-hoz/-hez/-höz	lakáshoz	to the apartment
Elative	-ból/-böl	lakásból	out of the apartment
Delative	-ról/ről	lakásról	off the apartment, about/concerning the apartment
Ablative	-tól/-től	lakástól	(away) from the apartment

As you can see, many of these correspond to prepositions in English. That's exactly how they were formed, as can be seen through the shifts in written Hungarian. Several of the suffixes were originally postpositions, common in Hungarian, that were then grammaticalized and suffixed onto the noun before it to form a new case.
Even though Hungarian is a pro-drop language, meaning pronouns are rarely used, there are personal pronouns used when for contrast or emphasis, or when there is no verb. Hungarian pronouns decline for person and plurality, but not for gender. There are three second person pronouns, labelled "informal", "formal" and "official". These are seen on the table below, in their subject form.

Meaning	Singular	Plural
1st	én	mi
2nd informal	te	ti
2nd formal	maga	maguk
2nd official	ön	önök
3rd	ő	ők

Most Hungarian verbs only conjugate for the past and present tense, with the future being formed by an auxiliary verb. The verb lenni, 'to be', however, has three inflected tenses. Hungarian verbs can be expressed in three moods: conditional, indicative and subjunctive/imperative.
In Hungarian, verbs not only show agreement with their subjects but also carry information on the definiteness of their direct objects. This results in two types of conjugations: definite (used if there is a definite object) and indefinite (if there is no definite object). Therefore, Hungarian verbs conjugate depending on both the subject and the object of the verb. The full paradigm of a regular verb can be seen on the Wikipedia page.
Furthermore, Hungarian has two forms which can be added to the stem to modify the meaning. One of these, -hat-/-het-, has a modal meaning of permission or opportunity. Compare beszélek, "I speak", with beszélhetek, "I may speak" or " I am allowed to speak". The other, -at-/-et-/-tat-/-tet- has a causative meaning. It's often used to express "having something done", or "Having/making someone do something. Compare beszélek, above, with beszéltetek, "I make somebody speak".
Hungarian verbs also have three participles as well as a verbal noun and infinitve and verbal prefixes/particles.

Miscellany

Old Hungarian text: Latiatuc feleym zumtuchel mic vogmuc. yſa pur eſ chomuv uogmuc. Menyi miloſtben terumteve eleve miv iſemucut adamut. eſ odutta vola neki paradiſumut hazoa. Eſ mend paradiſumben uolov gimilcictul munda neki elnie. Heon tilutoa wt ig fa gimilce tvl. Ge mundoa neki meret nu eneyc. yſa ki nopun emdul oz gimilſtwl. halalnec halalaal holz. Hadlaua choltat terumteve iſtentul. ge feledeve. Engede urdung intetvinec. eſ evec oz tiluvt gimilſtwl. es oz gimilſben halalut evec. Eſ oz gimilſnek vvl keſeruv uola vize. hug turchucat mige zocoztia vola. Num heon muga nec. ge mend w foianec halalut evec. Horogu vec iſten. eſ veteve wt ez munkaſ vilagbele. eſ levn halalnec eſ poculnec feze. eſ mend w nemenec. Kic ozvc. miv vogmuc.

Samples

Spoken sample:

Written sample:
Minden emberi lény szabadon születik és egyenlő méltósága és joga van. Az emberek, ésszel és lelkiismerettel bírván, egymással szemben testvéri szellemben kell hogy viseltessenek.

Sources

Wikipedia articles on Hungarian

Previous LotWs

(Spoilers Extended) Daario Naharis is an immortal precursor from the Shadowlands.

"And now I heard his voice, rising, swelling, thundering through the flaring light, and as I fell, the radiance increasing, increasing, poured over me in waves of flame. Then I sank into the depths, and I heard the King in Yellow whispering to my soul: 'It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God!'". -In the Court of the Dragon, from The King in Yellow by Robert Chambers

Ok, hear me out.
Immortals probably exist in ASOIAF
We have several very long lived characters in ASOIAF. Brynden Rivers is pushing 125 years. The Undying of Qarth are who knows how old. TV Melisandre is supposedly hundreds of years old and I imagine that’s going to be revealed as true in the books eventually. Carice van Houten was hinting at it back in 2012 when George was still very closely involved in the show.
Additionally, the natural cycles of summer and winter, life and death, and the corruption of those cycles are one of the recurring motifs of ASOIAF. So it would make sense that some people have found a way to achieve the individual equivalent of “the summer that never ends.”
Immortals probably would want to seek Daenerys out

Last of the three seekers to depart was Quaithe the shadowbinder. From her Dany received only a warning. "Beware," the woman in the red lacquer mask said.
"Of whom?"
"Of all. They shall come day and night to see the wonder that has been born again into the world, and when they see they shall lust. For dragons are fire made flesh, and fire is power." -A Clash of Kings - Daenerys II

Daenerys is, basically, a Weirdness Magnet. She has the only three known dragons anywhere in the world, and these dragons act as magical amplifiers. Everybody, especially everybody magical, is going to want a piece of them.
Immortal beings, who presumably rely on magic to sustain their vitality and might be magic users themselves, would particularly want to be in the proximity of her and her dragons as much as possible, and seek her out. While some like Bloodraven may be unable to do so, others probably can. So the idea of immortal beings in Daenerys’ court is actually not particularly strange. In fact, it seems almost inevitable. Thus we are confronted with a fantastic variant of the Fermi paradox: if immortals exist, why haven’t we seen any? And just like the Fermi paradox, the solution may well be “Because they’re hiding.”
Enter Daario Naharis.
Etymology, Mythology, and Daario

“Some character names do have meanings, when I dig into my “What to name your baby” books and find this name means destined for a tragic end, yeah, that’ll be a good name for my character.” (1:23:50) -Audio of GRRM interview with John Picacio in Redwood City

Daario Naharis has some interesting names. The first, Daario, is a slightly adjusted form of Dario, derived from Darius, a name held by many Persian emperors. Daario thus has connotations of power and royalty, as well as an association with the famous royal bodyguard of the Persian emperors: the immortals.
But that’s a fairly loose connection. Now his last name, Naharis, is far more interesting. “Nahar” is related to words in Hebrew, Arabic, Urdu, and other Near East languages for rivecanal. The inclusion of river suggests he might be connected to the river Ash in the Shadowlands. But I’m less interested in rivers than I am in Judge Nahar, otherwise known as the Semitic God Yamm.

Yamm (from the Semitic word yam for 'sea’, also known as Yam and Yam-Nahar) was the god of the sea in the pantheon of the Canaanite-Phoenicians. Depicted consistently as tyrannical, angry, violent and harsh, Yamm was the brother of Mot, the god of death, and is associated with chaos (an association furthered by his identification with Lotan the Leviathan, the monster who churned the seas). As Yam-Nahar (literally 'sea’ and 'river’) he personified the destructive aspects of both. He was the son of El, the supreme god of the Canaanite and Phoenician pantheon and is also referred to as Prince Yamm and “Beloved of El” in the myths of the region.

Yamm is an angry, chaotic sea god. Additionally he is closely associated with his servant Lotan, a multi-headed sea dragon thought to be an inspiration for the biblical Leviathan.
The reference to “Nahar” specifically rather than Yamm implies that GRRM is familiar with the Ugaritic Baal Cycle, a Caananite mythological text regarding a struggle where Baal, a storm god struggles with and defeats “Judge Nahar” (an epithet of Yamm) before also fighting Mot, the god of death.

Now Mighty Baal, son of Dagon, desired the kingship of the Gods. He contended with Prince Yam-Nahar, the Son of El. But Kindly El, Father Shunem, decided the case in favour of His son; He gave the kingship to Prince Yam. He gave the power to Judge Nahar. Fearsome Yam came to rule the Gods with an iron fist. He caused Them to labor and toil under His reign. They cried unto Their mother, Asherah, Lady of the Sea. They convinced Her to confront Yam, to interceed in Their behalf.

Note the name Asherah here, and its similarity to Ashara. Further evidence that the Baal Cycle was on George’s mind when he wrote ASOIAF.
Finally, let’s note that the addition of “-is” on the end of Nahar suggests George may have decided to make his name a crude anagram: “Daario is Nahar.” Pretty cocky move by GRRM, but it's been 19 years without people noticing so I guess he's right.
Anyway, all of this suggests that Daario is a character meant to be associated with a chaotic, tyrannical water god. A “Drowned God,” if you will. This adds yet another connection to the many between Euron and Daario. Some think these two are the same person, but that’s not weird enough for me! Let’s try looking at Daario through the lens of another, more modern mythos.
Hastur the Unspeakable One
Hastur is a being from the Cthulhu Mythos with an interesting history. He originated first with the Ambrose Bierce short story Haita The Shepherd, where he is a not at all horrifying god of Shepherds. Robert W Chambers liked the name, and started throwing it around in a collection of short stories titled “The King In Yellow,” named after a play which recurs as a motif in each story, with excerpts from Act I repeating appearing throughout. Act II, however drives the reader mad. Lovecraft himself then name dropped Hastur in a few places…

I found myself faced by names and terms that I had heard elsewhere in the most hideous of connections—Yuggoth, Great Cthulhu, Tsathoggua, Yog-Sothoth, R'lyeh, Nyarlathotep, Azathoth, Hastur, Yian, Leng, the Lake of Hali, Bethmoora, the Yellow Sign, L’mur-Kathulos, Bran and the Magnum Innominandum—and was drawn back through nameless aeons and inconceivable dimensions to worlds of elder, outer entity at which the crazed author of the Necronomicon had only guessed in the vaguest way. —H. P. Lovecraft, "The Whisperer in Darkness"

...without explaining much of anything about him. And finally, August Derleth elevated him to the status of Great Old One, half-brother and rival to Cthulhu, and made the King in Yellow one of his avatars.
GRRM is clearly familiar with Hastur, having named a mysterious city in Essos after the lost city Carcosa, which features in the King in Yellow.

Strange is the night where black stars rise, And strange moons circle through the skies, But stranger still is Lost Carcosa.

And Daario’s initial appearance, flamboyant and ridiculous as it is, is a reference to the King in Yellow. Here is how he first appears to Daenerys.

...Daario Naharis was flamboyant even for a Tyroshi. His beard was cut into three prongs and dyed blue, the same color as his eyes and the curly hair that fell to his collar. His pointed mustachios were painted gold. His clothes were all shades of yellow; a foam of Myrish lace the color of butter spilled from his collar and cuffs, his doublet was sewn with brass medallions in the shape of dandelions, and ornamental goldwork crawled up his high leather boots to his thighs. Gloves of soft yellow suede were tucked into a belt of gilded rings, and his fingernails were enameled blue. -A Storm of Swords, Daenerys IV

Did GRRM dress Daario like a banana just to emphasize that he’s flamboyant? I think not. Why make his entire outfit different shades of yellow if there’s no significance behind it?
And he makes this appearance before Daenerys and her court, thus making him “In the Court of the Dragon.” The title of one of the stories in The King In Yellow.
This could perhaps be dismissed if there were no supporting evidence for the idea that Daario is immortal. However, that evidence is everywhere.
Textual evidence that Daario isn’t human
A lot of text about Daario that comes across as kind of pointless suddenly gains much more meaning when you assume he isn’t human.

"Prendahl and Sallor would tell you so, if dead men could talk. I count no day as lived unless I have loved a woman, slain a foeman, and eaten a fine meal . . . and the days that I have lived are as numberless as the stars in the sky. I make of slaughter a thing of beauty, and many a tumbler and fire dancer has wept to the gods that they might be half so quick, a quarter so graceful. I would tell you the names of all the men I have slain, but before I could finish your dragons would grow large as castles, the walls of Yunkai would crumble into yellow dust, and winter would come and go and come again."

If Daario is a normal man: Daario is making a ridiculous boast about how much sex, murder, and fine cuisine he has had, which is extremely weirdly worded for someone who’s probably in his 20s appearance wise.
If Daario is an immortal: Daario is correctly stating that he has lived thousands of years and killed countless people right in front of Daenerys, while having an inward laugh at how she is misinterpreting it.

She believed him. "I swore that I should wed Hizdahr zo Loraq if he gave me ninety days of peace, but now … I wanted you from the first time that I saw you, but you were a sellsword, fickle, treacherous. You boasted that you'd had a hundred women." "A hundred?" Daario chuckled through his purple beard. "I lied, sweet queen. It was a thousand. But never once a dragon."

If Daario is a normal man: Daario is escalating a plausible boast to Wilt Chamberlain levels, even though doing so is definitely not in his best interest assuming he wants Daenerys
If Daario is an immortal: Daario is factually stating that yes, he has had a thousand women over the course of thousands of years being alive, but has never had either a Valyrian woman or, more likely, an actual dragon

"You are a queen. You can do what you like." He slid a hand along her leg. "How many nights remain to us?"
Two. Only two. "You know as well as I. This night and the next, and we must end this."
"Marry me, and we can have all the nights forever."

If Daario is a normal man: standard romantic hyperbole.
If Daario is immortal: an offer of immortality in exchange for her hand in marriage.

Beside her, Daario Naharis was sleeping as peacefully as a newborn babe. He had a gift for sleeping, he'd boasted, smiling in that cocksure way of his. In the field, he would sleep in the saddle oft as not, he claimed, so as to be well rested should he come upon a battle. Sun or storm, it made no matter. "A warrior who cannot sleep soon has no strength to fight," he said. He was never vexed by nightmares either. When Dany told him how Serwyn of the Mirror Shield was haunted by the ghosts of all the knights he'd killed, Daario only laughed. "If the ones I killed come bother me, I will kill them all again." He has a sellsword's conscience, she realized then. That is to say, none at all.

If Daario is a normal man: Daario is saying he is very good at naps. Also he wants us to know he has no conscience, and a ludicrously inflated opinion of how he would fare against an incorporeal being.
If Daario is an immortal: FOR EONS DAARIO HAS SLUMBERED. NOW HE WAKES. NOT EVEN YOUR SOULS ARE SAFE.
What the hell is Daario?
Despite the Lovecraft references, I think it is highly unlikely we will see Daario’s face slough off to reveal a hideous mass of writhing tentacles and gnashing mouths too terrible for the mind to comprehend. He is probably simply an immortal “human” who through magic has indefinitely prolonged his own life. But who?
Daenerys presents us with one possible option, without meaning to:

Daario had plundered himself a whole new wardrobe in Meereen, and to match it he had redyed his trident beard and curly hair a deep rich purple. It made his eyes look almost purple too, as if he were some lost Valyrian. A Storm of Swords - Daenerys VI

The “almost purple color” is so important it’s mentioned twice:

If I want Daario I need only say so. She lay with Irri's legs entangled in her own. His eyes looked almost purple today . . . A Storm of Swords - Daenerys VI

Make that thrice, and in a different book too:

No, she thought. His eyes are a deep blue, almost purple, and his gold tooth gleams when he smiles for me. A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys II

This “lost Valyrian” hypothesis makes some sense. Daario constantly dyes his hair and beard, we never see its actual color. Others have noted this and find it suspicious:

"Daenerys, I am thrice your age," Ser Jorah said. "I have seen how false men are. Very few are worthy of trust, and Daario Naharis is not one of them. Even his beard wears false colors."

Daario, when talking about one of his mercenaries, assures Daenerys that those who dye their hair are among the most trustworthy possible people, and definitely not spies.

"I trust all my men. Just as far as I can spit." He spat out a seed and smiled at her suspicions. "Shall I bring their heads to you? I will, if you command it. One is bald and two have braids and one dyes his beard four different colors. What spy would wear such a beard, I ask you?

Which is the sort of thing that might make someone even more suspicious. We also know of a certain other “mercenary” who dies their hair… Young Griff. Could Daario also be concealing silver hair?
Then there’s also his peculiarly nonchalant attitude towards Daenerys’ dragons, indicating that perhaps he’s been around them before:

Viserion sniffed the blood leaking from Prendahl's neck, and let loose a gout of flame that took the dead man full in the face, blackening and blistering his bloodless cheeks. Drogon and Rhaegal stirred at the smell of roasted meat.
"You did this?" Dany asked queasily.
"None other." If her dragons discomfited Daario Naharis, he hid it well. For all the mind he paid them, they might have been three kittens playing with a mouse.

One significant problem with this possibility is that Daario’s eyes are “almost purple,” but not quite. For this and other reasons, I think there is a better answer. TWOIAF presents this intriguing hypothesis on the origins of dragons:

”In Asshai, the tales are many and confused, but certain texts—all impossibly ancient—claim that dragons first came from the Shadow, a place where all of our learning fails us. These Asshai'i histories say that a people so ancient they had no name first tamed dragons in the Shadow and brought them to Valyria, teaching the Valyrians their arts before departing from the annals.” -TWOIAF

And there’s something notable about the Valyrians: they were originally shepherds.

Yet her words did not move the plump perfumed slaver, even when rendered in his own ugly tongue. "Old Ghis ruled an empire when the Valyrians were still fucking sheep," he growled at the poor little scribe, "and we are the sons of the harpy."

Remember how Hastur was originally a god of shepherds? Could Daario be a member of this mysterious Shadowlands precursor race, and perhaps even the same one who taught them how to tame dragons in the first place?
Whatever he is, his immortality seems to be of the “dies but comes back to life” sort, rather than invincibility.

Just three nights ago she had dreamed of Daario lying dead beside the road, staring sightlessly into the sky as crows quarreled above his corpse. A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys V

It could be a completely random dream, mentioned for no reason. It could be symbolic, although what exactly could a bunch of crows quarreling over Daario’s body next to a road symbolize? But most likely, imo, this is a dream of something that actually happened, judging by the condition he comes back in.

As Daario Naharis took a knee before her, Dany's heart gave a lurch. His hair was matted with dried blood, and on his temple a deep cut glistened red and raw. His right sleeve was bloody almost to the elbow. "You're hurt," she gasped.
"This?" Daario touched his temple. "A crossbowman tried to put a quarrel through my eye, but I outrode it. I was hurrying home to my queen, to bask in the warmth of her smile." He shook his sleeve, spattering red droplets. "This blood is not mine. One of my serjeants said we should go over to the Yunkai'i, so I reached down his throat and pulled his heart out. I meant to bring it to you as a gift for my silver queen, but four of the Cats cut me off and came snarling and spitting after me. One almost caught me, so I threw the heart into his face." A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys VI

Let’s not think too much about whether Daario's previously established habit of making ridiculous boasts that are actually true, implies he actually ripped a man’s heart out through his throat. Instead focus on the fact that he took a deep wound to the head and rode back mostly fine, albeit absolutely covered in blood, shortly after Daenerys dreamed of him dying.
What is Daario’s agenda?
Three possibilities stand out. The first is simply that Daario wants to stay close to Daenerys as much as possible because the proximity of the dragons strengthens the magic keeping him alive. It’s unlikely that the dragons are necessary to do this, but it’s probably a nice little pick-me-up.
The second is that Daario wants to nudge Daenerys towards violence and madness, either because it’s amusing or for some darker purpose. Daario is certainly a bad influence on Daenerys, which in combination with his supernatural nature makes him take on a certain demonic aspect. His cruel advice is too numerous to recount in full, but among other things:

He encouraged her to send the Unsullied into boiling oil in the siege of Meereen
He offers to kill Jorah for her
He suggests a “Red Wedding” style massacre of the nobles of Meereen
He offers to build a pile of heads for Daenerys taller than the Great Pyramid of Meereen
He convinces her to allow some of the Meereenese to sell themselves back into slavery
He says all rulers are either butchers or meat

The third possibility is that Daario really wants to court Daenerys and have a child with her. Daario is certainly having some success on that front, since Daenerys is insufferably obsessed with him.

Dany loved the way his gold tooth gleamed when he grinned. She loved the fine hairs on his chest. She loved the strength in his arms, the sound of his laughter, the way he would always look into her eyes and say her name as he slid his cock inside her. "You are beautiful," she blurted as she watched him don his riding boots and lace them up. Some days he let her do that for him, but not today, it seemed. That's done with too.

Gag. Insert like five more chapters of that and that’s ADWD for you.
Now Daenery's fixation on Daario is usually just thought to be GRRM saying "Teenage girls have awful taste in men and Daenerys is no exception." At length. Exhaustive length. But this is probably a smokescreen for something more sinister going on. Could Daario be enthralling Daenerys through supernatural means? It would make sense if Daario is meant to be a reference to the King in Yellow. He is associated with a supernatural mark called the Yellow Sign.

The King in Yellow never fully describes the shape and purpose of the Yellow Sign. Nonetheless, "The Repairer of Reputations", one of the stories in the collection, suggests that anyone who possesses, even by accident, a copy of the sign is susceptible to some form of insidious mind control, or possession, by the King in Yellow or one of his heirs. The stories also suggest that the original creator of the sign was not human and possibly came from a strange alternate dimension that contains an ominous and ancient city known as Carcosa.

As for a motive? Daario may be trying to father a race of immortal dragon riding god emperors to conquer the world. Daario has blue “almost purple” eyes, and said he has never once had a dragon. Perhaps despite being one of the precursors from the Shadowlands, he is genetically incapable of dragon riding? This might also explain why he would seek out the Valyrians and teach them to ride dragons. A child of Daario and Daenerys could inherit Daario’s immortality and Daenerys’ dragon riding, and would be a demigod among mortals. True "Stallion that Mounts the World" material.
And if Daenerys' fertility issues are ever resolved, given that Daenerys is in "screw Hizdahr, screw being temperate and responsible, I do what I want" mode as of the end of ADWD, Daario has a pretty good chance at fathering that child, given their extensive "conjugal relations."

That night Daario had her every way a man can have a woman, and she gave herself to him willingly. The last time, as the sun was coming up, she used her mouth to make him hard again, as Doreah had taught her long ago, then rode him so wildly that his wound began to bleed again, and for one sweet heartbeat she could not tell whether he was inside of her, or her inside of him.

Show Daenerys: Hears bells, goes completely insane.
Book Daenerys: Literally had sex with an elder god, still sane for now.
How will the reveal go down?
It might not. Overtly, that is.

The gardeners dig a hole, drop in a seed and water it. They kind of know what seed it is, they know if planted a fantasy seed or mystery seed or whatever. But as the plant comes up and they water it, they don't know how many branches it's going to have, they find out as it grows. And I'm much more a gardener than an architect. -GRRM

GRRM has planted one hell of a weird eldritch seed with Daario, and then watered it extensively by giving him a ridiculous amount of focus in Daenerys' ADWD chapters. But who knows how much it will grow? The mechanism of Daario's immortality does have a certain amount of plausible deniability built into it; he could be "killed" and as long as his body isn't recovered, no one would be the wiser if he walks it off a couple hours/days later.
However there is one very plot important way the books could reveal his true nature: Dragonbinder.

Moqorro turned the hellhorn, examining the queer letters that crawled across a second of the golden bands. "Here it says, 'No mortal man shall sound me and live.' " -A Dance with Dragons - Victarion I

As of the end of ADWD, Daario is still being held hostage by the Yunkish. He may even be on board a Yunkish ship, which Victarion may end up boarding. Victarion could thus easily take Daario prisoner himself when he attacks the Yunkish fleet at the Battle of Fire. And afterwards when Daenerys doesn't immediately throw herself at Victarion, either because she's uninterested or, more likely, not even present, Victarion is going to be mad. And when Victarion gets mad, people are going to die.
He may well offer an ultimatum: Daenerys marries me now or Daario blows the hellhorn, killing him. This will not work, so Daario will blow the horn. And then... nothing. He's completely fine. Victarion has just enough time to be very confused before one of the dragons (probably Rhaegal) burns him to death. And then either Daario flies off to Westeros with the dragon, or the dragon is bound to Daario's master (perhaps Euron?) and Daario just goes back to Meereen as if nothing ever happened. Everybody in story chalks his survival up to "magic sure is weird, huh?" And the reader is the only one alive who knows the implications of what happened. These are just two of the possible ways it could go down.
Anyway, that's why Daario Naharis is a secret immortal demigod from the Shadowlands. I have some speculation on his connections to Euron but I'll save those for later. What do you think? At least "Bolt-On" levels of plausible?
And TL;DR
Daario = Judge Nahar
Daario = The King In Yellow = Hastur
Many of Daario's ridiculous brags are actually true statements
Daario's natural hair color is silver and his eyes are almost purple
Daario dies and then resurrects shortly afterwards at least once off screen
Daario probably wants to turn Daenerys to the dark side or father a race of immortal dragon-riding demigods with her.
Daario may blow Dragonbinder and live in TWOW.
Edit: While I came to this conclusion independently, it would be remiss of me not to note that just now I found someone else had a similar idea 3 years ago! So now I need to look into their other theory that Tommen is a telepath I guess.

Daario Naharis is an immortal from the Shadowlands

X-post from asoiaf

"And now I heard his voice, rising, swelling, thundering through the flaring light, and as I fell, the radiance increasing, increasing, poured over me in waves of flame. Then I sank into the depths, and I heard the King in Yellow whispering to my soul: 'It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God!'". -In the Court of the Dragon, from The King in Yellow by Robert Chambers

Ok, hear me out.
Immortals probably exist in ASOIAF
We have several very long lived characters in ASOIAF. Brynden Rivers is pushing 125 years. The Undying of Qarth are who knows how old. Melisandre, as a being from Asshai with many unnatural aspects who has practiced her art of divination "for years beyond count," may be one as well.
Additionally, the natural cycles of summer and winter, life and death, and the corruption of those cycles are one of the recurring motifs of ASOIAF. So it would make sense that some people have found a way to achieve the individual equivalent of “the summer that never ends.”
Immortals probably would want to seek Daenerys out

Last of the three seekers to depart was Quaithe the shadowbinder. From her Dany received only a warning. "Beware," the woman in the red lacquer mask said.
"Of whom?"
"Of all. They shall come day and night to see the wonder that has been born again into the world, and when they see they shall lust. For dragons are fire made flesh, and fire is power." -A Clash of Kings - Daenerys II

“Some character names do have meanings, when I dig into my “What to name your baby” books and find this name means destined for a tragic end, yeah, that’ll be a good name for my character.” (1:23:50) -Audio of GRRM interview with John Picacio in Redwood City

Yamm (from the Semitic word yam for 'sea’, also known as Yam and Yam-Nahar) was the god of the sea in the pantheon of the Canaanite-Phoenicians. Depicted consistently as tyrannical, angry, violent and harsh, Yamm was the brother of Mot, the god of death, and is associated with chaos (an association furthered by his identification with Lotan the Leviathan, the monster who churned the seas). As Yam-Nahar (literally 'sea’ and 'river’) he personified the destructive aspects of both. He was the son of El, the supreme god of the Canaanite and Phoenician pantheon and is also referred to as Prince Yamm and “Beloved of El” in the myths of the region.

Now Mighty Baal, son of Dagon, desired the kingship of the Gods. He contended with Prince Yam-Nahar, the Son of El. But Kindly El, Father Shunem, decided the case in favour of His son; He gave the kingship to Prince Yam. He gave the power to Judge Nahar. Fearsome Yam came to rule the Gods with an iron fist. He caused Them to labor and toil under His reign. They cried unto Their mother, Asherah, Lady of the Sea. They convinced Her to confront Yam, to interceed in Their behalf.

I found myself faced by names and terms that I had heard elsewhere in the most hideous of connections—Yuggoth, Great Cthulhu, Tsathoggua, Yog-Sothoth, R'lyeh, Nyarlathotep, Azathoth, Hastur, Yian, Leng, the Lake of Hali, Bethmoora, the Yellow Sign, L’mur-Kathulos, Bran and the Magnum Innominandum—and was drawn back through nameless aeons and inconceivable dimensions to worlds of elder, outer entity at which the crazed author of the Necronomicon had only guessed in the vaguest way. —H. P. Lovecraft, "The Whisperer in Darkness"

Strange is the night where black stars rise, And strange moons circle through the skies, But stranger still is Lost Carcosa.

And Daario’s initial appearance, flamboyant and ridiculous as it is, is a reference to the King in Yellow. Here is how he first appears to Daenerys.

...Daario Naharis was flamboyant even for a Tyroshi. His beard was cut into three prongs and dyed blue, the same color as his eyes and the curly hair that fell to his collar. His pointed mustachios were painted gold. His clothes were all shades of yellow; a foam of Myrish lace the color of butter spilled from his collar and cuffs, his doublet was sewn with brass medallions in the shape of dandelions, and ornamental goldwork crawled up his high leather boots to his thighs. Gloves of soft yellow suede were tucked into a belt of gilded rings, and his fingernails were enameled blue. -A Storm of Swords, Daenerys IV

"Prendahl and Sallor would tell you so, if dead men could talk. I count no day as lived unless I have loved a woman, slain a foeman, and eaten a fine meal . . . and the days that I have lived are as numberless as the stars in the sky. I make of slaughter a thing of beauty, and many a tumbler and fire dancer has wept to the gods that they might be half so quick, a quarter so graceful. I would tell you the names of all the men I have slain, but before I could finish your dragons would grow large as castles, the walls of Yunkai would crumble into yellow dust, and winter would come and go and come again."

She believed him. "I swore that I should wed Hizdahr zo Loraq if he gave me ninety days of peace, but now … I wanted you from the first time that I saw you, but you were a sellsword, fickle, treacherous. You boasted that you'd had a hundred women." "A hundred?" Daario chuckled through his purple beard. "I lied, sweet queen. It was a thousand. But never once a dragon."

"You are a queen. You can do what you like." He slid a hand along her leg. "How many nights remain to us?"
Two. Only two. "You know as well as I. This night and the next, and we must end this."
"Marry me, and we can have all the nights forever."

If Daario is a normal man: standard romantic hyperbole.
If Daario is immortal: an offer of immortality in exchange for her hand in marriage.

Beside her, Daario Naharis was sleeping as peacefully as a newborn babe. He had a gift for sleeping, he'd boasted, smiling in that cocksure way of his. In the field, he would sleep in the saddle oft as not, he claimed, so as to be well rested should he come upon a battle. Sun or storm, it made no matter. "A warrior who cannot sleep soon has no strength to fight," he said. He was never vexed by nightmares either. When Dany told him how Serwyn of the Mirror Shield was haunted by the ghosts of all the knights he'd killed, Daario only laughed. "If the ones I killed come bother me, I will kill them all again." He has a sellsword's conscience, she realized then. That is to say, none at all.

Daario had plundered himself a whole new wardrobe in Meereen, and to match it he had redyed his trident beard and curly hair a deep rich purple. It made his eyes look almost purple too, as if he were some lost Valyrian. A Storm of Swords - Daenerys VI

The “almost purple color” is so important it’s mentioned twice:

If I want Daario I need only say so. She lay with Irri's legs entangled in her own. His eyes looked almost purple today . . . A Storm of Swords - Daenerys VI

Make that thrice, and in a different book too:

No, she thought. His eyes are a deep blue, almost purple, and his gold tooth gleams when he smiles for me. A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys II

This “lost Valyrian” hypothesis makes some sense. Daario constantly dyes his hair and beard, we never see its actual color. Others have noted this and find it suspicious:

"Daenerys, I am thrice your age," Ser Jorah said. "I have seen how false men are. Very few are worthy of trust, and Daario Naharis is not one of them. Even his beard wears false colors."

Daario, when talking about one of his mercenaries, assures Daenerys that those who dye their hair are among the most trustworthy possible people, and definitely not spies.

"I trust all my men. Just as far as I can spit." He spat out a seed and smiled at her suspicions. "Shall I bring their heads to you? I will, if you command it. One is bald and two have braids and one dyes his beard four different colors. What spy would wear such a beard, I ask you?

Viserion sniffed the blood leaking from Prendahl's neck, and let loose a gout of flame that took the dead man full in the face, blackening and blistering his bloodless cheeks. Drogon and Rhaegal stirred at the smell of roasted meat.
"You did this?" Dany asked queasily.
"None other." If her dragons discomfited Daario Naharis, he hid it well. For all the mind he paid them, they might have been three kittens playing with a mouse.

”In Asshai, the tales are many and confused, but certain texts—all impossibly ancient—claim that dragons first came from the Shadow, a place where all of our learning fails us. These Asshai'i histories say that a people so ancient they had no name first tamed dragons in the Shadow and brought them to Valyria, teaching the Valyrians their arts before departing from the annals.” -TWOIAF

And there’s something notable about the Valyrians: they were originally shepherds.

Yet her words did not move the plump perfumed slaver, even when rendered in his own ugly tongue. "Old Ghis ruled an empire when the Valyrians were still fucking sheep," he growled at the poor little scribe, "and we are the sons of the harpy."

Just three nights ago she had dreamed of Daario lying dead beside the road, staring sightlessly into the sky as crows quarreled above his corpse. A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys V

As Daario Naharis took a knee before her, Dany's heart gave a lurch. His hair was matted with dried blood, and on his temple a deep cut glistened red and raw. His right sleeve was bloody almost to the elbow. "You're hurt," she gasped.
"This?" Daario touched his temple. "A crossbowman tried to put a quarrel through my eye, but I outrode it. I was hurrying home to my queen, to bask in the warmth of her smile." He shook his sleeve, spattering red droplets. "This blood is not mine. One of my serjeants said we should go over to the Yunkai'i, so I reached down his throat and pulled his heart out. I meant to bring it to you as a gift for my silver queen, but four of the Cats cut me off and came snarling and spitting after me. One almost caught me, so I threw the heart into his face." A Dance with Dragons - Daenerys VI

He encouraged her to send the Unsullied into boiling oil in the siege of Meereen
He offers to kill Jorah for her
He suggests a “Red Wedding” style massacre of the nobles of Meereen
He offers to build a pile of heads for Daenerys taller than the Great Pyramid of Meereen
He convinces her to allow some of the Meereenese to sell themselves back into slavery
He says all rulers are either butchers or meat

The third possibility is that Daario really wants to court Daenerys and have a child with her. Daario is certainly having some success on that front, since Daenerys is insufferably obsessed with him.

Dany loved the way his gold tooth gleamed when he grinned. She loved the fine hairs on his chest. She loved the strength in his arms, the sound of his laughter, the way he would always look into her eyes and say her name as he slid his cock inside her. "You are beautiful," she blurted as she watched him don his riding boots and lace them up. Some days he let her do that for him, but not today, it seemed. That's done with too.

The King in Yellow never fully describes the shape and purpose of the Yellow Sign. Nonetheless, "The Repairer of Reputations", one of the stories in the collection, suggests that anyone who possesses, even by accident, a copy of the sign is susceptible to some form of insidious mind control, or possession, by the King in Yellow or one of his heirs. The stories also suggest that the original creator of the sign was not human and possibly came from a strange alternate dimension that contains an ominous and ancient city known as Carcosa.

That night Daario had her every way a man can have a woman, and she gave herself to him willingly. The last time, as the sun was coming up, she used her mouth to make him hard again, as Doreah had taught her long ago, then rode him so wildly that his wound began to bleed again, and for one sweet heartbeat she could not tell whether he was inside of her, or her inside of him.

Yep, Daenerys is banging an elder god. Wrap your head around that.
How will the reveal go down?
It might not. Overtly, that is.

The gardeners dig a hole, drop in a seed and water it. They kind of know what seed it is, they know if planted a fantasy seed or mystery seed or whatever. But as the plant comes up and they water it, they don't know how many branches it's going to have, they find out as it grows. And I'm much more a gardener than an architect. -GRRM

Moqorro turned the hellhorn, examining the queer letters that crawled across a second of the golden bands. "Here it says, 'No mortal man shall sound me and live.' " -A Dance with Dragons - Victarion I

As of the end of ADWD, Daario is still being held hostage by the Yunkish. He may even be on board a Yunkish ship, which Victarion may end up boarding. Victarion could thus easily take Daario prisoner himself when he attacks the Yunkish fleet at the Battle of Fire. And afterwards when Daenerys doesn't immediately throw herself at Victarion, either because she's uninterested or, more likely, not even present, Victarion is going to be mad. And when Victarion gets mad, people are going to die.
He may well offer an ultimatum: Daenerys marries me now or Daario blows the hellhorn, killing him. This will not work, so Daario will blow the horn. And then... nothing. He's completely fine. Victarion has just enough time to be very confused before one of the dragons (probably Rhaegal) burns him to death. And then either Daario flies off to Westeros with the dragon, or the dragon is bound to Daario's master (perhaps Euron?) and Daario just goes back to Meereen as if nothing ever happened. Everybody in story chalks his survival up to "magic sure is weird, huh?" And the reader is the only one alive who knows the implications of what happened. These are just two of the possible ways it could go down.
Anyway, that's why Daario Naharis is a secret immortal demigod from the Shadowlands. I have some speculation on his connections to Euron but I'll save those for later. What do you think? At least "Bolt-On" levels of plausible?
And TL;DR
Daario = Judge Nahar
Daario = The King In Yellow = Hastur
Many of Daario's ridiculous brags are actually true statements
Daario's natural hair color is silver and his eyes are almost purple
Daario dies and then resurrects shortly afterwards at least once off screen
Daario probably wants to turn Daenerys to the dark side or father a race of immortal dragon-riding demigods with her.
Daario may blow Dragonbinder and live in TWOW.
One final note: I came to this conclusion independently, but it would be remiss of me not to note that afterwards I found someone else had a similar idea 3 years ago! So now I need to look into their other theory that Tommen is a telepath I guess.

今日は - This week's language of the week: Japanese!

Japanese is a member of the Japonic language family mostly spoken in the Japanese Archipelago. As of 2010, it was spoken by over 125 million people, placing it in the top 15 of the most spoken languages.

History

The first extant evidence of the Japanese language comes from the Old Japanese period of the language, lasting until the end of the Nara Period in 794 CE. Older inscriptions do exist, and there are some phonetic transcriptions of Japanese words/names found in old Chinese literature, but the accuracy of these is debatable. Anything from before the Old Japanese period must be based on reconstructions. Some fossilized constructions from Old Japanese are still found in Modern Japanese.
The Middle Japanese period is divided into two time frames: Early Middle Japanese, which lasted through the Heian Period (794-1185) and Late Middle Japanese (1185 - 1600) during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. Late Middle Japanese is subdivided into two periods corresponding to the two periods of Japanese history. It was during Late Japanese period that the first European loan words entered the language, including pan (bread) and tabako (originally tobacco, now cigarette), both coming from Portuguese. Late Middle Japanese was also the first form of the language to be described by non-native scholars.
The Middle Japanese period gave way to the Early Modern Japanese which roughly spans the Edo period until the Meiji Restoration. Modern Japanese proper emerged after the Meiji Restoration, and continues today.

Linguistics

As a Japonic language, Japanese is closely related to the Ryukyuan languages which could have split from Japanese during the Yamato period.
Japanese was long considered a language isolate before the acceptance of the Ryukyuan languages as separate languages. Since then, it has firmly been linked to them. Other theories link Japanese and Korean, sometimes with the broader Altaic family. These, however, have not garnered wide support
Classification
Japanese's full classification is as follows:
Japonic > Japanese
Phonology and Phonotactics
Japanese has a five vowel system, /i e a o u/, which contrasts for length, giving a total of 10 vowel phonemes. Japanese has a "pure" vowel system, meaning that there are no diphthongs. The vowels /i/ and often become voiceless when they occur between two voiceless consonants.
Japanese has 16 native vowel phonemes, including two special ones that occur with moras, /N/ mora nasalization and /Q/, geminination. Furthermore, there are 11 other vowel sounds in the language, though these only occur allophonically or as phonemes in loan words.
Japanese does not use a syllabic system for the timing of words, instead using a mora system. Each mora occupies one rhythmic unit, i.e. it is perceived to have the same time value. Each "regular" mora can consist of a vowel, or a consonant vowel combination, sometimes with a glide before the vowel. The two moraic phonemes can constitute a mora as well. Long vowels constitute two mora, with some analyses introducing a third moraic phoneme, / to constitute this break. A table of all the mora types can be seen below (period representing a mora break).
Japanese has a standard pitch accent system as well. A word can have one of its moras bearing an accent or not. An accented mora is pronounced with a relatively high tone and is followed by a drop in pitch. The various Japanese dialects have different accent patterns, and some exhibit more complex tonic systems.

Mora type	Example	Japanese	English	Number of Moras
V	/o/	o 尾	tail	1 mora
jV	/jo/	yo世	world	1 mora
CV	/ko/	ko 子	child	1 mora
CjV	/kjo/	kyo 巨	hugeness	1 mora
R	/ in /kjo. or /kjo.o/	kyō 今日	today	2 moras
N	N/ in /ko.N / kon紺	deep blue	2 moras
Q	/Q/ in in /ko.Q.ko/ or /ko.k.ko/	kokko 国庫	national treasury	3 moras

Morphology and Syntax
Japanese is an aggulitinative language, and follows a Subject-Object-Verb word order. The only strict rule of Japanese sentence structure is that the verb must be placed at the end of the sentence, though it can be followed by sentence-ending particles. Japanese is a head-final and left-branching language. Japanese can also be described as a 'topic-prominent' language, a feature which arose during the Middle Japanese period and the subject of the sentence is often omitted unless absolutely necessary to prevent ambiguity or to introduce the topic.
Japanese nouns do not inflect for number or gender, and definite articles do not exist (though the determiners can sometimes be translated as articles). However, Japanese does have several cases, which are expressed by particles attached to the nouns. These are summarized in the table below:

Case	Particle
Nominative	が (ga) for subject, は (wa) for the topic
Genitive	の (no)
Dative	に (ni)
Accusative	を (wo)
Lative	へ (e)
Ablative	から (kara)
Instrumental	で (de)

Although many grammars and textbooks mention pronouns (代名詞 daimeishi), Japanese lacks true pronouns. (Daimeishi can be considered a subset of nouns.) Strictly speaking, pronouns do not take modifiers, but Japanese daimeishi do: 背の高い彼 se no takai kare (lit. tall he) is valid in Japanese. Interestingly, unlike true pronouns, Japanese daimeishi do not represent a closed-class, meaning that new members can be, and are, regularly added. Like other subjects, Japanese deemphasizes personal daimeishi, which are seldom used. This is partly because Japanese sentences do not always require explicit subjects, and partly because names or titles are often used where pronouns would appear in a translation. Furthermore, Japanese only has one reflexive daimeishi, with uses much different to English reflexives.
Japanese verbs do not conjugate for person or number, meaning the same form of the verb is used regardless of the subject of the sentence. However, they do conjugate differently based on the level of politness required. The basic form of the Japanese verb is the imperfective aspect, which can encompass the present or the future and is thus sometimes called a 'non-past' form. It is the lemma of the word, and thus what will be found in the dictionary, and can stand on its own, as in (私は)買い物する (watashi wa) kaimono suru: "(I) shop", or "(I) will shop".
The perfective aspect of a verb generally ends in -ta (or -da), but various phonetic changes are made, depending on the verb's last syllable. This is often presented as a past tense, but can be used in any tense.
To make a verb negative, the -u of the ending generally becomes -anai, though this changes based on formality in some auxiliary verbs, notably the copula (which has different forms based on formality).
The "i form" of the verb is formed by changing the -u to -i and has a variety of uses including (among others) to form polite verbs when followed by the -ます -masu ending, to express a wish when followed by the ending -たい -tai and to express that something is easy or hard when followed by -易い -yasui or -難い -nikui.
The te form of a Japanese verb (sometimes called the "participle", the "gerund", or the "gerundive form") is used when the verb has some kind of connection to the following words. Usages of this form include forming a simple command, in requests (with くれる kureru and 下さい kudasai) and to form the progressive tense as an auxiliary. Many other uses of the te form exist as well.
To form the potential form of the verb, the -u ending becomes -eru. This is used to express that one has the ability to do something. Since this is a passive form, what would be a direct object in English is marked with the particle が ga instead of を o. For example, 日本語が読める nihongo ga yomeru: "I can read Japanese" (lit. "Japanese can be read"). It is also used to request some action from someone, in the exact sense of the English "Can you ... ?", though this would never be used to ask permission, unlike in English.
The general pattern for the passive voice is: -u becomes -areru. The passive is used as a general passive, as a 'suffering passive', to indicate that something regretful was done to someone, or as a form of polite language.
The causative forms are characterized by the final u becoming aseru for consonant stem verbs, and ru becoming saseru for vowel stem verbs. This form is used for making someone do something, allowing someone to do something, with explicit actors making someone do something as well as as an honorific form.
The causative passive form is obtained by first conjugating in the causative form and then conjugating the result in the passive form. As its rule suggests, the causative passive is used to express causation passively: 両親に勉強させられる ryōshin ni benkyō saserareru: "(I) am made to study by (my) parents".
The eba provisional conditional form is characterized by the final -u becoming -eba for all verbs (with the semi-exception of -tsu verbs becoming -teba). This form is used in conditionals where more emphasis is on the condition than the result as well as to express obligations.
The conditional ra form (also called the past conditional) is formed from the past tense (TA form) by simply adding ra. ba can be further added to that, which makes it more formal. This form is used when emphasis is needed to be placed on the result and the condition is less uncertain to be met. 日本に行ったら、カメラを買いたい。nihon ni ittara, kamera wo kaitai: "If (when) I go to Japan, then (when that has happened) I want to buy a camera." It can also be used as the main clause of the past tense and is often translated as 'when'; when used like this, it carries an emphasis that the result was unexpected.
Most of the imperative forms are characterized by the final u becoming e. The imperative form is used in orders, set phrases, reported speech where a request might be rephrased this way, on signs and in motivation speaking.
Volitional, presumptive, or hortative forms have several endings based on the verb class. This form is used to express or ask volitional ("Let's/Shall we?") statements and questions, to express a conjecture (with deshō), to express what one is thinking of doing (with omou) and to express 'about to' and 'trying to'.
Japanese does not have traditional adjectives like English, instead expressing adjectives with 'adjectival verbs' or 'adjectival nouns'. Japanese adjectives do not have comparative or superlative inflections; comparatives and superlatives have to be marked periphrastically using adverbs. Every adjective in Japanese can be used in an attributive position. Nearly every Japanese adjective can be used in a predicative position.
Finally, Japanese has many particles. Among the ones already mentioned, with identify the case of the noun, Japanese uses particles to express what would normally be expressed by prepositions in English, but they also have other meanings such as "just" in "I just ate" or "not only" when adding information ("not only did I eat it, but he did too").

Miscellany

The oldest writing in Japan is in Classical Chinese, though some evidence points to the fact that these texts were supposed to be read as Old Japanese.
Japan currently has three writing systems: the syllabic systems of hiragana and katakana as well as the logographic system of the kanji. All of these came from borrowings (and then simplification) of Chinese logographs.
Japanese has had several different methods of adapting the Chinese symbols to their language. Among these are the Kojiki system of mixed writing, Man'yōgana (which hiragana and katakana came from, and is a sister system to modern day kanji).
Hiragana first gained popularity among women, who were generally not allowed access to the same levels of education as men. And thus hiragana was first widely used among court women in the writing of personal communications and literature. From this comes the alternative name of onnade (女手) "women's writing". For example, The Tale of Genji and other early novels by female authors used hiragana extensively or exclusively.
Japanese was traditionally written right to left, top to bottom.

Samples

Spoken sample:

Wikitongues Recording: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4R1-TLkxBs
Lullaby: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=68xu7uxsAgY

Written sample:
すべての人間は、生まれながらにして自由であり、かつ、尊厳と権利とについて平等である。人間は、理性と良心とを授けられており、互いに同胞の精神をもって行動しなければならない。
Edit: Original sample below
むかし、むかし、あるところにおじいさんとおばあさんがいました。おじいさんが山（やま）へ木（き）をきりにいけば、おばあさんは川（かわ）へせんたくにでかけます。「おじいさん、はようもどってきなされ。」「おばあさんもきをつけてな。」まい日（にち）やさしくいいあってでかけます。
ある日（ひ）、おばあさんが川でせんたくをしていたら、つんぶらこつんぶらこももがながれてきました。ひろってたべたら、なんともおいしくてほっぺたがおちそう。おじいさんにもたべさせてあげたいとおもって、「うまいももこっちゃこい。にがいももあっちゃいけ。」といったら、どんぶらこどんぶらこでっかいももがながれてきました。おばあさんはよろこんで、ももをいえにもってかえりました。
ゆうがたおじいさんが山からもどってきました。「おじいさん、おじいさん、うまいももをひろったでめしあがれ。」おばあさんがきろうとしたら、ももがじゃくっとわれ、ほぎゃあほぎゃあ
男（おとこ）のあかんぼうがとびだしました。「こりゃあたまげた。」「なんちゅうげんきなあかんぼうだ。」ふたりはあわてておゆをわかすやらきものをさがすやら。
(Excerpt from a traditional Japanese story)

Sources

Wikipedia articles on Japanese

Previous LotWs

Ontitokaaha - This week's language of the week: Alabama!

Alabama (also known as Alibamu, Albaamo innaaɬiilka in the language itself) is a Muskogean language spoken by the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. It was spoken at the Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town in Oklahoma, but has since died out there. There are approximately 250 speakers of the language left.

Linguistics

As a Muskogean language, Alabama is distantly related to other, more widely known, languages such as Chickasaw and Chocktaw. Among its closer relatives are the Koasati and Apalachee languages, and it is believed to have been closely related to the now-extinct Muklasa and Tuskegee languages.
Various subdivisions of these languages have been proposed, but no clear consensus has been reached outside of closely related languages and the family as a whole to provide a firm basis for positing a tree. Because of that, the possible intermediate forms will not be listed below.
Classification
Alabama's full classification is as follows:
Muskogean > Alabama
Phonology and Lexicon
Alabama distinguishes three vowels -- /i a o/ -- phonemically (though there is a fourth one that could possibly have a phonemic distribution). These vowels are, however, contrasted in all positions for length, thus giving Alabama six phonemic vowel choices. While length is contrasted in all positions, in word-final position it is limited to specific syntactic functions. Likewise, there is a lot of variation in how the vowels are actually realized. Vowels can be nasal, but, in all but one case, nasal vowels alternate with a vowel + nasal combination and should not be considered independent phonemes. Diphthongs can result when a vowel is followed by a glide in a closed syllable; out of the six possible diphthongs, only three (/ay/, /oy/, /aw/) can be considered as phonemic, with two (/ow/ and /iw/) not known to occur at all.
Alabama has 14 consonants (5 stops, 4 fricatives, 3 resonants and 2 glides). No stops occur at the end of words in native Alabama words in isolation and thus only appear word initially or medially between vowels. Apart from the voiced bilabial stop /b/, voicing is redundant with all obstruents being voiceless while resonants and glides are voiced.
All consonants except for /b/ can form geminates, with /bb/ and /b/ being in free variation. Likewise all consonants except /b/ and /c/ (the voiced bilabial stop and the alveopalatal stop) can occur as the initial member of a two member consonant cluster, while all consonants can be the second member. Clusters do not occur in word-final position. Likewise, clusters of three consonants do not occur morpheme-internally; when they do occur due to other processes, such as affixation or compounding, they are reduced to two-consonant clusters. (Ex: ist- (instrumental prefix) + coopa ('buy') = iscoopa ('sell')). Borrowed words, however, may avoid the cluster reduction, as in katska 'blue catfish' from *kats 'cats' + -ka 'derivational affix'.
Alabama has a pitch accent, though it is not lexically significant but rather grammatically conditioned. There are two pitches, high and low, with low only being contrastive with it is immediately preceded by a high pitch sound. This often occurs within the same syllable, resulting in a falling pitch. While pitch isn't lexically contrastive, words in isolation are generally pronounced with the final syllable higher than the preceeding one, regardless of structure or word class, unless the word has an inherent falling pitch.
While it is not currently contrastive leixcally, pitch is necessary for grammatical contrasts. The interrogative mood, for instance, is marked by a change in pitch as well as nasalization of the final vowel. However, for some speakers the nasalization is so slight that the pitch pattern alone determines the indication of the interrogative mood.
Alabama syllables are divided into two types -- restricted and unrestricted. Unrestricted syllables can appear in any position, initial, medial or final, and are of the form (C)V(V). Restricted syllables are of two types -- those that end in a consonant and those that end in a cluster. They can appear as VC, VCC, CVC, CVVC, CCV, CCVV and VCC. Consonant-final syllables are restricted word-fianlly, where the consonant must be /k/, /n/, /t/ or /s/. Elsewhere /c/ adn /b/ cannot appear finally unless followed by /c/ and /b/ respectively. Syllable boundaries occur between two unlike vowels or two consonants in a cluster, even geminate consonants.
Grammar
The basic word order of Alabama is Subject-Object-Verb, though the object can be shifted to the front of the sentence. Likewise, the subject can be positioned after the verb, giving an "afterthought" intonation to the postposed subject of object. A complete sentence may often consist of no more than the inflected verb.
There are two morphologically distinct cases on Alabama nouns -- nominative and oblique. With active verbs, the fully specified noun phrases which functions as the agent is nominative, while all other noun phrases appear in the oblique. With passive verbs, it is the patient that appears in the nominative with all others in the oblique. While other inflections can occur (see below), one of these two always will.
Nouns can inflect for plural, though the uninflected noun can also serve as the plural. They also inflect for possession, taking either inalienably possessed prefixes or alienably possessed ones, depending on the noun itself. Significant semantic categories include animate/inanimate, individual/collective, alienable/inalienable and shape-position, used to reflect human postures of standing, squatting, lying and others.
Nouns are classified according to which prefix the take for possession -- the inalienable possession prefix (patient) or the alienable possession prefix (dative). Kin terms and body parts often take the patient prefixes, as they are inalienably possessed. However, there are some kin terms and body parts that do not take the inalienable prefix, see imapatayyi ('his/her granddaughter or his/her maternal uncle's daughter') as well as imalokha ('brain').
Nouns, as mentioned, mark for case. The nominative case marking is -k, while the oblique is -n. There is a marking for a locative -fa, which is always followed by the -n of the oblique, thus the oblique and the nominative are marked on every noun, coexisting with other inflections. When nouns inflect for the plural, -há is used. Some examplesa re ati ('person') versus atihá ('people'). Along with the locative suffix, which denotes what has the locative relationship (where the thing is at, or on, etc.), there are several locative prefixes that are marked directly on the root of the verb or the noun. These are a-/ay 'at', pa- 'on', on- 'upon' (mostly replaced with pa-, ita- 'down', iba- 'with', o- 'in/into water'.
And example of how these come together with the locative is: takkolcobak ayolimpafan *pa*anááhobi ('There is an apple on the table/There are some apples...'). Here, fa is the locative suffix relating the the bale is the thing they're on, where as pa- expresses the meaning 'on' and appears on the verb. Other ways can appear, such as pa- appearing on the noun itself, or it can appear on the noun or verb, or just the verb (without the locative on the noun; generally for a stative meaning). Another example is the verb for 'to drown', which was derived from ilit, 'to die', by prefixing the o- meaning 'in/into water', giving oyelit.
Nouns can also be derived. Some of the affixes used for this are -osi, a diminutive as in taata 'father', but taatasi 'paternal uncle' (lit. 'little father'); ifa 'dog', ifasi 'puppy' ; -ka, a 'derivational affix' for borrowed words when used in a syntactic construction -- the borrowed bil ('Bill', borrowed name as term of address), but bilka coopati 'Bill bought it'; compounds (formed as adjective-noun as in ocabaski 'pecan', from oca 'nut' + baski 'long'; noun-noun, ittobihi 'bow' from itto 'wood' + bihi 'gun'; as well as noun-verb hasissobayka 'clock' from hasi 'sun' + ist-sobayka 'instrumental-known').
Alabama pronouns have three persons: first, second and third. The third person has zero representation in the agentive and patient, but has overt representations in the dative. First and second persons distinguish singular and plural forms, while the third person does not. These independent pronouns are generally used disambiguation and emphasis. The chart of independent pronouns can be seen below.

Person	Singular	Plural
First	ana	posna ~ kosna
Second	isna	hasna
Third	ibisna	ibisna

There are a total of four sets of agentive pronomial affixes -- two affirmative and two negative (allomorphs of each other, and clearly historically related). The third person doesn't mark on the verb, and thus will not be represented on the table below. The positive agentive affixes are:

Person	is-set	ci-set
First singular	-as, -li	-aa, -li
Second singular	is-	-ci
First plural	(h)il-	-(hi)li
Second plural	has-	-haci

The negative affixes are seen below (accent marks represent pitch)

Person	Negative affixes
First singular	(t)ák, ká
Second singular	cík, cikí
Third singular	ík, kí
First plural	kíl, kilí
Second plural	hacík, (h)acikí
Third plural	ík, kí

Likewise, there are patient prefixes, used when the pronomial form is the object of a transitive verb. Some examples of these being used are 'cahallo' (Do you hear me?) and 'cilhiicati' (We saw you). Furthermore, pronomials also have dative prefixes, for all persons and numbers. These can be seen below

Person	Singular	Plural
First	am-	pom-, kom-
Second	cim-	hacim-
Third	im-	(aatim-)

The Alabama verb is inflected for person, number tense/aspect, negation and mood. There are two types of verbs -- active and stative. Active verbs may be either transitive or intransitive. The pronomial affixes (mentioned above) can be prefixed, infixed or suffixed, with verbs being classified to the type and position of the affix. Some examples of inflected verbs can be seen below, with the affix bolded (ho used in the final example should be analyzed as a 'distributive' instead of a general pronomial prefix):

Alabama	English
haaloliti	'I heard it'
haalaalo	'I will hear it'
isnooco	'You slept'
coispo	'You bought it'
hopooncilo	'You will cook it'
nooco	'He slept'
ilhaaloti	'We heard it'
coilpati	'We bought it'
hohaaloti	'They bought it'.

Alabama verbs can have several derivational affixes. Among these, the ones of most interest are -li 'active', -ka 'mediopassive' and -ci 'causative'. The majority of verbs are derived with either -li or -ka and many verb roots contain both, with -li being hte active verb stem and the -ka form representing the stative stem. This is not a hard rule, however, and there are many active verbs that terminate in -ka, take agentive affixes and lack a corresponding -li form.
The passive can be marked on the verb with infixation, -l- or -il- often being a common way to do this, as in ilbi 'is killed' from ibi 'to kill'. There is also an 'intensive infix' -h-, which can be seen in hahlo 'to hear anything easily' from halo 'to hear' (this infix can also be used with adjectives to derive nouns and verbs: nahni 'a hero, a brave man' from nani 'male'; kahya 'to overeat' from haiya 'full).
The order in which affixes apply to the verbs is variable depending on the verb class (which set of agentive pronomials it takes) as well as the type of conjugation (basic, infixed, auxiliary, etc.). The most basic order, however, is agent - verb stem - TNS. An example of this paradigm is included below (the vowel in the parentheses, the prothetic one, does not appear when the stem is preceded by the agentive prefix; notice it appears after ho-, showing that it is not a pronomial prefix):

Person	Alabama	English	Affix markings
1sg	ipalo	I eat it	ipa-li-o
2sg	ispo	You eat it	is-(i)pa-o
3sg	ipo	He eats it	ipa-o
1pl	ilpo	We eat it	il-(i)pa-o
2pl	haspo	Y'all eat it	has-(i)pa-o
3pl	hoipo	They eat it	ho-ipa-o

Negatives are indicated by the presence of the negative agentive affix as well as the presence of -ki, a negative auxiliary, and/or the particle -o, a 'negative' marker. See below for the three third person constructions of hiica 'see' ('he sees' and 'he doesn't see')

Positive	Negative 1	Negative 2
hiico	ikhíícobi	hicatíkkobi

The distinction between tense and aspect is difficult to make in Alabama, and so the two are generally grouped together (this has led some historical linguists to believe that Proto-Muskogean lacked a tense category, and used aspect and modals to convey temporal information). These affixes can be split into two groups, with some leaning more towards tense while others towards aspect, but these are not rigorous groupings and I will merge them when listing them in the table below. As can be seen, Alabama distinguishes two future times, two present ones and three past tenses, while the rest lean towards aspectual use.

Affix	Gloss
-lo	(definite) future
-la	indefinite future
-ci	continuous
-o/-bi	perfect
-ti	proximate time
-kha	remote time
-to(ha)	narrative past
-ahi	intentional
-aapi/mpa	durational
-co(li)	credential
-colikha	remote habitual ('used to do')
-coti	proximate habitual ('used to doing')
-moli	evidential
-alpiisa	obligational
aaba	censurial

The final suffix included on the verb in Alabama is one for indicating the mood. Three moods are given: declarative, interrogative and imperative. The declarative is the unmarked form, while interrogatives are formed by nasalizing the final vowel and changing the intonation (see above; sometimes the vowel is so weak that intonation is the only indicator). The imperative, which exists in a positive and negative form, is conveyed by changing intonation and placing either the distributive -ho between the root and -li/-ka (positive imperative) or by adding the verbal suffix -mna (negative imperative). Simultaenous actions can be expressed with the affix fóóka-, a 'temporal locative' affix often best translated as 'while', 'when', at the time of', etc. An example of this is akaakan ipat feelilifóókok ifakon ibiliti ('having finished eating the chicken, I killed the dog'), with the affix appearing on the verb for 'finish'.
Finally, Alabama has several 'syntactic suffixes'. Some of these, such as the case endings, have already been mentioned. But two more are -yá, which is used to topicalize nouns, as well as -t, labeled 'verb conjunction', which appears at the end of an uninflected verb that is followed by yet another verb, usually the finite one. This can have several meanings, such as 'X and X' (cokoolit compalici 'I am sitting and eating', -t is on the verb 'sit') and in combining two such as the English 'Bill finished building the table' (bilkak ayolimpan taliboo(li)t anooliti, where the verb witht he 't' represents 'build').

Miscellany

The origin of the name Alabama is obscure; the most posited theory is that it is a corruption of a Chocktaw expression meaning 'cleared thicket'.
The Alabama were first contacted in 1541 by De Soto along the banks of the Alabama River, a few miles north of modern-day Montgomery; they were there until the 18th century, when they were relocated.
Only one of the groups kept their language alive, that which had settled in eastern Texas; the rest slowly assimilated into the more dominant tribes of the area (the ones who stayed in Alabama, for instance, assimilated with the Creek and, by 1910 in Oklahoma, their language had almost been completely supplanted by Creek).

Samples

Spoken sample:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_UMZ_Qnhq8 (Biblical video)
Written sample:
Note: I am transcribing a story below. Please note that I will not indicate tone and that it will be in a modified IPA (I can't recreate some of the characters on my keyboard, for instance) due to the fact the language has rarely been written.
wahkan likonlon ittimmayeesbannatoha. "cimmayaalatolo" lakonlakok mankan wahkakok "ammaciyaabokolo" katoha. mahmimok "sancohatkaci maatalahkafayon ostokoohililolo" katoha. mahmosin "ina" katoha. mahmosin ittiilahot coffitomaali likonlakok wakaikat nakaalã wahkakaalok wakaikat obaalima atakaakatoha. tankacooton nihtoton allatok analtoha. sancohatkafakon osthacaatoha. istobaalon likonlakok wakaikat olatoha. "cimmayalo" wahkakok katoha. "immayasbannayok". hayoyahiya hikãmõca hikamõlapitcaii wawa.
(The crane and the hummingbird wanted to bet with each other. "It seems I will beat you," the hummingbird said, and (new subject) the crane responded "You're not going to beat me!" And then (same subject) "You and I will go stand yonder where there's white sand," he said. And then (different subject, i.e. hummingbird) "It's OK to me," he responded. And then (different subject, i.e. crane) coming together, even as they jumped off, that there hummingbird flew off and disappeared and (different subject) that there crane along flying behind just hung in there. Night and day he went on and on. Where there was white sand, he stood. Coming behind, that hummingbird, flying, arrived there. "I have beaten you," the crane said. "So he wants to beat him!" (the crane sang) (last line is a song, indeterminate meaning).

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conjugation day meaning in urdu video

Tareef Meaning from Urdu to English is Conjugation, and in Urdu it is written as تعریف. This word is written in Roman Urdu. Tareef Meaning in English - Find the correct meaning of Tareef in English, it is important to understand the word properly when we translate it from Urdu to English. There are always several meanings of each word in English, the correct meaning of Tareef in English ... Conjugation meaning in Arabic has been searched 5350 times till 20 Jan, 2021. The definitions of the word Conjugation has been described here with maximum details, and also fined different synonyms for the word Conjugation. You can listen to the pronunciation of the word Conjugation in clear voice from this page online through our voice dictionary a unique facility for dedicated users. conjugation meaning in Urdu (Pronunciation -تلفظ سنیۓ ) US: 1) conjugation. Noun. The state of being joined together. ربط ... Word of the day advent - آمد . Arrival that has been awaited (especially of something momentous). Urdu2Eng on FB . By joining us on all social media networks you can get latest updates and learning stuff. New latest. Get the latest updates and offers ... The page not only provides Urdu meaning of Reunion but also gives extensive definition in English language. The definition of Reunion is followed by practically usable example sentences which allow you to construct your own sentences based on it. You can also find multiple synonyms or similar words of Reunion. All of this may seem less if you are unable to learn exact pronunciation of Reunion ... Hello, so I have been learning Urdu for about two weeks. I am using Mondly and the textbook "Teach Yourself Urdu" by David Matthews and Mohamed … Press J to jump to the feed. Press question mark to learn the rest of the keyboard shortcuts. Log In Sign Up. User account menu. 10. Verb conjugation help. Close. 10. Posted by 4 days ago. Verb conjugation help. Hello, so I have been learning Urdu ... Definition of conjugation in the Definitions.net dictionary. Meaning of conjugation. What does conjugation mean? Information and translations of conjugation in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. Urdu verb conjugation is just the thing to improve your Urdu. Learn how to conjugate Urdu verbs with UrduPod101, and use verbs like a native! Lessons. Lesson Library Newest Lessons Favorites. Vocabulary. Flashcards Vocabulary Lists Free Word Bank Word of the Day Free. Urdu Dictionary Free 100 Most Common Words Free 2000 Most Common Words Urdu Key Phrases Free. My Teacher. My Teacher Messenger ... There are always several meanings of each word in Urdu, the correct meaning of Conjugation in Urdu is تعریف, and in roman we write it Tareef. The other meanings are Tareef, Feal Ki Gardaan and Pewand. Conjugation is an noun according to parts of speech. It finds its origins in Late Middle English (in conjugation (sense 1)): from Latin conjugatio(n-), from conjugare ‘join together’ (see conjugate). There are also several similar words to Conjugation in our dictionary, which are ... Conjugation meaning in Hindi is विकार and it can write in roman as Vikar. Along with the Hindi meaning of Conjugation, multiple definitions are also stated to provide a complete meaning of Conjugation. Check the spelling of the word Conjugation here and learn the appropriate use of the Conjugation in a sentence. This English to Hindi ... Google's free service instantly translates words, phrases, and web pages between English and over 100 other languages.

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Conjugation Meaning In Urdu Tareef تعریف English to ...

conjugation day meaning in urdu

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conjugation day meaning in urdu video

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